In the purely classical form, Thai drama and dance are indivisible.
The Khon masked drama is derived from Indian temple rituals and dancing and draws its story line from the Ramakien, the Thai version of the Indian epic Ramayana. During the Ayutthaya period, the Khon was performed by accomplished male court retainers playing both male and female roles because until the 19th century the movements were thought too strenuous for women to perform. By the mid 1800s both men and women were appearing on stage together.
Performances of Khon are characterized by vigourous, highly ΓÇö formalized action. Acting and dancing are inseparable, each step having a definite meaning which is emphasized by precisely defined music to suggest walking, marching, laughing, etc. Because some actors and actresses are masked and cannot speak, narrative verses are usually recited and sung by a chorus that sits with the accompanying woodwind, gong, and drum ensemble. The leading male and female performers do not wear masks and on some occasions they may speak.
The ornate papier mache masks, decorated with gold, lacquer, and paste jewels, are works of art and perfectly portray the protagonistsΓÇÖ personalities. Costumes are made of rich brocades adorned with sparking costume jewellery and closely resemble the apparel of royalty and celestial beings in classical Thai mural paintings. Major characters are readily identifiable by the predominant colours of their costumes. Phra Ram, the hero, wears deep green, while his brother, Phra Lak, wears gold and the monkey-god Hanuman wears white.
Khon productions were originally so long ΓÇô more than 20 hours ΓÇô that performances were staged on two consecutive days. Indeed, a performance of the entire Ramakien (with 311 characters)
would take more than one month (720 hours plus) of continuous performance. King Rama IIΓÇÖs shorter version of the epic is used for dramatic purposes and contemporary adaptations of certain episodes are as short as three hours.
Lakhon dance drama is less formal and actors, except for monkeys, ogres, and other non -human, non-celestial beings, do not wear masks. Lakhon plots are drawn mainly from the Ramakien, the Jatakas, and folk stories; Khon and Lakhon costumes are identical, but Lakhon dance movements are more graceful, sensual, and fluid, the upper torso and hands being particularly expressive with conventionalized movements portraying specific emotions.
Lakhon is subdivided into numerous variations, the major three being Lakhon Chatri, Lakhon Nok, and Lakhon Nai. Simplest of all in form and presentation, Lakhon Chatri is often seen at popular shrines, such as BangkokΓÇÖs Lak Muang (City Pillar) where dancers are hired by supplicants whose wishes have been granted to perform for the shrine deity.
Lakhon Nai drama was originally presented only by court ladies in the palace. It was graceful, romantic, and highly stylized. Lakhon Nok plays, on the other hand,were performed outside the palace and acted only by men. Filled with lively music, off-colour humour, and rapid, animated movements, Lakhon Nok was the ancestor of the enormously popular Likay folk theatre which is still a feature of many provincial festivals.
Likay, a burlesque of Lakhon containing elements of pantomime, comic folk opera, and social satire,is generally performed against a simply painted background during temple fairs,Its court-derived stories are embellished with local references and anecdotes, and the spontaneous dialogue is full of outrageous puns and double entendres.
Two neglected dramatic forms are Nang Yai shadow play and Hun marionettes, both regular forms of entertainment in Ayutthaya. In Nang Yai, intricately fashioned cowhide figures, some two metres tall, are held against a brilliant backlit white screen. Bearers of the figures dance their parts, the movements of which were later to provide the pattern for Khon and Lakhon.
Nang Talung, a more popular shadow play found mainly in the south of Thailand, closely resembles the Indonesian Wayang. Beautifully fashioned Nang Talung figures are smaller than their Nang Yai counterparts and are often constructed to have one moveable part ΓÇô an arm, a leg, or a chin. Concealed from audiences, the manipulators are skilled singers and comedians, whose repartee keeps the action bubbling.
Hun marionettes, seldom seen today, are superbly crafted figures which differ from European marionettes in that they are manipulated from below rather than above, A more popular version is Hun Krabok (literally, ΓÇ£cylindrical ModelΓÇ¥) which are similar to Punch and Judy-style hand puppets.
Architecture
Admitting Indian, Khmer, and other external influences, Thai Buddhist architects developed their own distinctive styles of soaring multi-tiered rooftops and towering spires straining toward the sky. Harmoniously combining two apparently paradoxical elements, flamboyancy and serenity, the style perfectly mirrors the Thai soul. Although most early Thai buildings were made of wood and have long since disappeared, taking with them the architectural principles according to which they were built, a developmental history of Thai architecture can still be traced through surviving stone temples.
Early Sukhothai monuments were strongly Khmer-influenced. In the Khmer manner, sandstone was used to form door parts, lintels, and rectangular windows. Around the 12th century, brick replaced sandstone as the favoured building material. Bricks were carefully laid without mortar, bound with vegetable glue, and then sheathed in carved stone. Later, architects used stucco, a sand, lime, and glue mixture strengthened by a terra cotta armature, to cover the brick walls. In the heavily forested north, wood was employed in temple construction and craftsmen attained great skill in carving decorative elements.
Chinese influence can also be seen in ornamental decoration, particularly the use of porcelain fragments in various colours and adornments that afford the finest Thai architecture its harmonious, polychromatic effect. This art reached its highest expression during the first half of the 19th century.
Materials such as glass mosaic pieces highlighted gables and pillars, as well as wooden and stucco figures, and other decorative techniques utilized lacquer, gilt, mother-of-pearl inlay, gold leaf, and porcelain fragments to obtain the desired effect of gleaming elegance.
The most spectacular Buddhist architecture is to be seen at BangkokΓÇÖs Wat Phra Kaew (Temple of the Emerald Buddha) which contains more exquisite carving and decoration per square centimeter than any comparable site in the world. Within the temple compound, almost every surface is covered with inspired decoration. Incorporating so many colours and materials, the complex is a near psychedelic yet unified mixture of multi-tiered ochre, blue, orange, and green tiled roofs, towering fanged dragons staring at a golden Ayutthaya-style chedi, marble prangs, priceless mother-of-pearl inlaid doors, bronze lions, gilt Garudas,Chinese statuary,and tiny tinkling bronze wind bells suspended from scarlet and gold-lacquered eaves and is,above all,the Thai ideal of a skilfully-arranged complex imparting reverence and serenity.
Wat Benchamabophit (the Marble Temple), also in Bangkok is renowned as the most impressive example of modern Thai Buddhist architecture. Built in 1899 by King Chulalongkorn, the temple is constructed of white Italian marble and surmounted by multi-tiered orange tiled roofs.
In addition to religious structures,a distinctive Thai style of domestic architecture also evolved, employing prefabricated panels hung on a framework of stout pillars and using wooden pegs instead of nails for joining.Various forms developed in different regions of the country, perhaps the best known being the central plains style with its steep roofs, decoratively-carved bargeboards,and slightly in ward-leaning walls that give it a memorable sense of elegant grace.
Traditional Thai architecture declined around 1900 when buildings were increasingly in European styles. Old-style craftsmen and builders who worked on temples, palaces, and traditional houses found that prevailing tastes required them to master Western techniques and construction of classic buildings almost ceased, especially in the capital. From the late 1940s European influence grew rapidly and local architects enthusiastically embraced the concepts of such Western pioneers as Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies Van der Rohe.
Like other forms of art in recent years, Thai architecture has been revolutionized by new industrial materials and by the example of the pure functionalism of machines. Modern Thai architects seem to be guided by Western principles of structure, plan, and functionalism, so that their works resemble those to be seen in any large city of the world, reflecting not only individual taste but also such matters as zoning regulations, ecology, and energy consumption.
Literature
Early Thai literature was primarily concerned with religion and until the mid-19th century was in verse form. That verse was written exclusively by the aristocracy or royalty, the only educated classes able to do so. The tradition of authorship by kings can be seen in all periods of the countryΓÇÖs history, from Sukhothai up to Bangkok. Two Chakri monarchs, King Rama II (1809-1824) and King Rama VI (1910-1925), were distinguished poets and patrons of Thai arts.
One of the most important Thai literary works is the Ramakien, a uniquely Thai version of the Indian epic Ramayana. Early Thai versions of the Ramakien were lost in the destruction of Ayutthaya. The longest of the three present versions was written in 1798 by the first Chakri King, Rama I, and a group of intimates, who incorporated Thai and Buddhist elements into it to preserve oral knowledge of Ayutthaya state rites and traditions. Indeed, King Rama IΓÇÖs Ramakien is the major historical source of medieval Thai courtly traditions.
King Rama II composed two episodes of the Ramakien for classical drama purposes and wrote several other epic poems, including the Inao, a romance with a Javanese background. The Inao is a treasure trove of historical information on the early 19th century. Thai customs, habits, and manners figure prominently in the repertoire of classical drama.
Another major Thai literary figure was Sunthon Phu (1786-1855), a poetic genius and well-beloved commoner. Sunthon PhuΓÇÖs enduring achievement (apart from his legendary personal adventures) was to write supremely well in common language about common feelings and common people. Easily understood by all classes, his work became widely accepted. His major works were Phra Aphai Mani,a romantic adventure,and nine Nirats mostly written during a pilgrimage, associating romantic memories with the places he visited in central and eastern Thailand.
Both King Rama V and King Rama VI were also distinguished writers whose creativity reflected the rich intellectual heritage of several prose and verse forms. Among the outstanding literary works of King Rama V were Ngo Pa and the well-known Klai Ban (Far Away From Home), about his
journey to Europe in 1906-7.King Rama VIΓÇÖs works included Matthana Phata, Phra Non Kham Luang, and several patriotic articles entitled Muang Thai Chong Tun Thoet (Wake Up All Thais).
An outstanding writer and scholar was Phraya Anuman Rajadhon, who was born in 1888 and died in 1969. Interested in all aspects of Thai culture,from language to folklore, Phraya Anuman wrote dozens of books on such subjects and served as an inspiration to numerous younger Thais who are now prominent in academic fields.
In the modern age, from about 1900 onward, most Thai readers are acquainted with work of Dokmaisod, the pen name of M.L. Boopha Nimmanhaemindha. Among her pioneering novels were Phu Di, Nung Nai Roi, Nit, Chaichana Khong Luang, Naruban. Many of her works are assigned reading for students at the secondary and tertiary levels of education today.
Malai Choopinij, under his pen names of Mae Anong and Noi Intanon, was an expert in both novels and short stories. Thung Maharat, a novel about rural life, and Long Phrai, about adventures in the forest, are two of his best-known works.
Other prominant modern writers have included Yakhop (pen name of Chot Praephan), author of Phu Chana Sip Thit, about the Burmese royal court; Sri Burapha (Kularb Sai Pradit) whose most famous work is a love story entitled Khang Lang Phap; Krisna Asokesin (Sukanya Cholasuk) who has written over a hundred novels about love and the complexities of family life; Suwanee Sukhontha, whose novel Khao Chue Kan told the story of a young doctor who goes to work in a rural area; and former Prime Minister M.R. Kukrit Pramoj whose most famous novel, Si Phandin, offers a picture of Thai society through four reigns, from King Rama V to King Rama VIII.
The S.E.A. Write Awards, established in 1978 to honour writers from the countries that comprise ASEAN, has become an important annual event in ThailandΓÇÖs literary life. The Thai winner in 1999 was Win Lyovarin, who also won in 1997; his novels deal with contemporary subjects, including the political scene.
Publishing
Christian missionaries introduced ThailandΓÇÖs first printing press in 1835. Nineteenth-century interest in publishing was confined mostly to the royal court and foreign groups of missionaries and businessmen. No fewer than seven English-language newspapers began and ceased publication between 1844 and 1877.
One royal publication, the Royal Gazette, founded in 1858 by King Rama IV, exists to the present day as the official medium for acts, decrees, ministerial proclamations, and public announcements of newly promulgated laws.
Daily newspapers came into their own during the reign of King Rama VI when 20 dailies, including one Chinese and two English-language publications, were being printed.The King himself, a skilled writer, used several pen names to write newspaper articles commenting on issues of the day.
Thai publishing at present is a lively scene. A glance at any ordinary newsstand reveals hundreds of different local newspapers, magazines,and paperback books on every conceivable subject. Many foreign best-sellers are translated into Thai soon after their appearance abroad.
According to the latest figures, there are 38 daily newspapers published in Thailand, four weeklies, four monthlies, four Chinese-language newspapers, and one Muslim paper. A survey in 1995 found that 41.1 percent of households in the kingdom read newspapers, while this figure rose to 68.1 percent in Bangkok. The most popular daily newspapers are Thai Rath, Daily News, Khao Sod,and Matichon. Each claims a circulation of about 500,000 per day, though on weekends Thai Rath claims a million readers and Daily News 800,000. Sin Sian Yit Pao is the leading Chinese-language newspaper, while the Bangkok Post (daily circulation 60,000) and the Nation (55,000) are the major English-language papers.
Magazines in both English and Thai cater to a wide spectrum of tastes. There are about 50 leading Thai magazines, the most popular of which are aimed principally at women; other subjects which find a large readership are entertainment, sports, tourism, and technical nowledge. Standards of production for both books and magazines have dramatically improved in recent years and high-quality colour printing is now quite common.
Radio and Television
Thailand has 523 radio stations, of which 211 are AM and 312 are FM. The AM system has 38 stations in Bangkok and 173 in the provinces, while the FM numbers 40 Bangkok stations and 272 provincial ones. Many fall under the aegis of the governmental Public Relations Department, which is responsible for Radio Thailand, the official broadcasting station, which in turn transmits the local and international news mandatorily broadcast by all Thai stations. Radio Thailand is also the official channel for government information.
Along with the Thai Television Co, Ltd., the Post and Telegraph Department, the Royal Thai Army, Navy, and Air Force, the Police Department, Kasetsart and Chulalongkorn Universities, and the
Ministry of Education all operate radio stations. Except for the Education Ministry and Radio Thailand, all other stations are commercial and rely heavily on advertising revenue to cover operating costs. Programming tends to resemble the commercial format popular in other countries, with music and talk shows the dominant fare.
A mass media survey in 1994 found that the audience for radio had decreased from 67.4percent of the population in 1984 to 43.9 percent in 1994, the reason being the increased access to television.
In 1955,Thailand became the first country in Southeast Asia to begin regular television service. Thai television today offers numerous local channels, both government-run and private, as well as international cable TV channels. Since all but one station are commercial,shows must have a popular appeal. These include imported programmes from the U.S.,China,and Japan,as well as locally produced documentaries, serialized dramas, and quiz and game shows. Educational programmes introduced as part of the courses offered by open-university systems are popular with audiences who pursue their studies in this way. Sports programmes, particularly local and overseas soccer, boxing matches, and other such events, have a wide appeal.
A 1994 survey found that there were 10.9 million TV sets nationwide, a figure that is certainly much higher today.
Films
The great majority of Thai films are made purely for entertainment. Tightly budgeted, they commonly feature actors and actresses with proven box-office appeal. Ghost stories, action-filled adventures, and historical romances are the most popular; relatively few deal with the problems of daily life or politics.
The local film industry has suffered from competition by Western products, which are shown in the numerous new cinema complexes that have been opened in recent years in Bangkok and other large cities. A few film-makers, however, have successfully adopted new techniques to appeal to younger audiences, with encouraging results at the box-office.
Historic Thai films are kept by the National Film Archives under the Department of Fine Arts. The collection includes footage of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) on one of his visits to England towards the end of the 19th century, as well as a film made by King Prajadhipok (Rama VII).
